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<title>Kronos (computer)</title>

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</style><table class="infobox hproduct vevent"><caption class="infobox-title fn summary">Kronos</caption><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Developer</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union">Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union</a>, Siberian branch, <a href="Novosibirsk" title="Novosibirsk">Novosibirsk</a> Computing Center, Modular Asynchronous Developable Systems (MARS) project, Kronos Research Group (KRG)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Product family</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Wirth</a> <a href="Lilith_(computer)" title="Lilith (computer)">Lilith</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Workstation" title="Workstation">workstation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Release date</th><td class="infobox-data">1988<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1988</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Availability</th><td class="infobox-data">none</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discontinued</th><td class="infobox-data">Yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Excelsior</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="32-bit_computing" title="32-bit computing">32-bit</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Display</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Monochrome" title="Monochrome">monochrome</a> <a href="Raster_graphics" title="Raster graphics">bitmapped</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Marketing target</th><td class="infobox-data">Research</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kronos.ru">kronos<wbr>.ru</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>Kronos</b> is a series of <a href="32-bit_computing" title="32-bit computing">32-bit</a> processor equipped <a href="Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit board</a> systems,<sup id="cite_ref-Kronos-xTech_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kronos-xTech-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="Workstation" title="Workstation">workstations</a> based thereon,<sup id="cite_ref-Kronos-xTech_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kronos-xTech-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of a <a href="Proprietary_hardware" title="Proprietary hardware">proprietary hardware</a> architecture developed in the mid-1980s in <a href="Akademgorodok" title="Akademgorodok">Akademgorodok</a>, a research city in <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, by the <a href="Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union">Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union</a>, Siberian branch, <a href="Novosibirsk" title="Novosibirsk">Novosibirsk</a> Computing Center, Modular Asynchronous Developable Systems (MARS) project, Kronos Research Group (KRG).<sup id="cite_ref-Kronos-xTech_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kronos-xTech-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>In 1984, the Kronos Research Group (KRG) was founded by four students of the <a href="Novosibirsk_State_University" title="Novosibirsk State University">Novosibirsk State University</a>, two from the mathematics department (Dmitry "Leo" Kuznetsov, Alex Nedoria) and two from the physics department (Eugene Tarasov, Vladimir Vasekin). At that time, the main objective was to build home computers for the KRG members.

</p><p>In 1985, the group joined the Russian fifth generation computer project START, in which Kronos became a platform for developing multiprocessor reconfigurable <i>Modular Asynchronous Developable Systems</i> (MARS),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and played a lead role in developing the first Russian full 32-bit workstation and its software.

</p><p>During 7 years (1984–1991) the group designed and implemented:

</p>

<ul><li>Kronos 2.1 and 2.2 – 32-bit processor boards for DEC LSI-11</li>

<li>Kronos 2.5 – 32-bit processor board for Labtam computers</li>

<li>Kronos 2.6 – 32-bit workstation</li></ul>

<p>The project START was finished in 1988. During the post-START years (1988–1991), several Russian industrial organizations expressed interest in continuing the Kronos development and some had been involved in facilitating the construction of Kronos and MARS prototypes, including the design of a Kronos-on-chip. However, changing funding levels and the chaotic economic situation during <a href="Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> kept those plans from being realized.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2></div>

<p>The Kronos <a href="Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">instruction set architecture</a> was based on <a href="Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Niklaus Wirth</a>'s <a href="Modula-2" title="Modula-2">Modula-2</a> workstation <a href="Lilith_(computer)" title="Lilith (computer)">Lilith</a>, developed at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (<a href="ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a>) of <a href="Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> Switzerland, which in turn was inspired by the <a href="Xerox_Alto" title="Xerox Alto">Xerox Alto</a> developed at <a href="Xerox_PARC" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerox PARC">Xerox PARC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kronos-xTech_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kronos-xTech-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Modula-2-based Kronos was quite amenable to the basic principles of MARS, as Modula-2 is fundamentally modular, allowing programs to be partitioned into units with relatively well defined interfaces. These interfaces supported separate compiling of modules, and separating of module specifications from their implementation. The primary difference between Lilith and Kronos was that the processor of Lilith was <a href="16-bit_computing" title="16-bit computing">16-bit</a>, while Kronos was 32-bit and incorporated several extensions to the instruction set to accommodate the inter-processor communication needed in MARS.

</p><p>Kronos satisfied many aspects of the <a href="Reduced_instruction_set_computer" title="Reduced instruction set computer">reduced instruction set computer</a> (RISC) design, although it was not pure RISC: the evaluation stack was used to evaluate expressions and to hold parameters for procedure calls. Since most executed instructions were encoded in a single byte, the object code for Kronos was very compact. Although Kronos was a proprietary processor, it was well suited to applications which were sensitive to high programmability rather than to software compatibility. For example, embedded control systems require fast and reliable design of new original applications for controlling unique objects and processes. Modula-2 was then a perfect language for this purpose, and Kronos was a perfect processor to effectively run the Modula-2 software.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hardware">Hardware</h2></div>

<p>An advanced version of Kronos was based on a 32-bit stack-type КА1845ВМ1 processor, КА1845ВС1 data processing unit, and УУП memory control unit. All the three were designed and fabricated by КНИИМП, Kiev Research Institute of Microdevices.

</p>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.155la3.ru/k1845.htm">КА1845ВМ1</a> had 246 commands, which allowed supporting Modula-2 language. It also featured hardware support of interrupts and process synchronization. The CPU was fabricated in a 2.5 um CMOS technology with two layers of metallization and packaged in a planar 84-pin metal-polymer case. It contains 199 thousands elements and has area of 8.55x8.1 mm^2. The maximum clock frequency is 10 MHz.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.155la3.ru/k1845.htm">КА1845ВС1</a> contained ALU, 8x32 stack, matrix shifter, 16x32 register block, and status flag multiplexers. The amount of addressable memory is 4 GB. The chip area is 5.8x5.25 mm^2, 16 thousand elements.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.155la3.ru/uup.htm">УУП</a> provided operation with virtual memory up to 4 GB. It contains a data cache (128x32), a redirect buffer (128x40), a dynamic RAM controller, and an error detection and correction circuit. Memory access time does nor exceed 100 ns. УУП chip contains 102 thousands elements and has area of 9.1x7.3 mm^2.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software">Software</h2></div>

<p>The Kronos software included:

</p>

<ul><li>Versions of the proprietary operating system Excelsior</li>

<li>Compilers for Modula-2, <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, and <a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li>CAD systems</li>

<li>Other applications</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operating_system">Operating system</h3></div>

<table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #e0e0e0;">Excelsior</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Kronos Research Group (KRG)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Written in</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Modula-2" title="Modula-2">Modula-2</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Working state</th><td class="infobox-data">Discontinued</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Source model</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">proprietary</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data">1988<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1988</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Marketing target</th><td class="infobox-data">Research</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Available in</th><td class="infobox-data">Russian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Update method</th><td class="infobox-data">Compile from <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Package_manager" title="Package manager">Package manager</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Modula-2 modules</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Supported platforms</th><td class="infobox-data">Kronos</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">Kernel</a> type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Lilith_(computer)#Operating_system" title="Lilith (computer)">Medos-2</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Official website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kronos.ru/literature/processors">www<wbr>.kronos<wbr>.ru<wbr>/literature<wbr>/processors</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The Kronos workstation includes an <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> named <i>Excelsior</i>, developed by the Kronos Research Group (KRG). It is a single user system based on Modula-2 modules.<sup id="cite_ref-Kronos-Excelsior_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kronos-Excelsior-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In design, it is similar to the OS <i><a href="Lilith_(computer)#Operating_system" title="Lilith (computer)">Medos-2</a></i>, developed for the Lilith workstation, at ETH Zurich, by Svend Erik Knudsen with advice from Niklaus Wirth.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kronos.ru/">"Kronos: History of a Project"</a> (in Russian). xTech<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKuznetsovNedoryaOsipovTarasov1986" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kuznetsov, D.N.; Nedorya, A.E.; Osipov, A.V.; Tarasov, E.V. (1986). Kotov, V.E. (ed.). "The processor Kronos in a multiprocessor system". <i>Computer Systems and Software</i> (in Russian). Novosibirsk: <span class="nowrap">13–</span>19.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWolcottGoodman1988" class="citation journal cs1">Wolcott, P.; Goodman, S.E. (September 1988). "High-Speed Computers of the Soviet Union". <i>Computer</i>. <b>21</b> (9). <a href="Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a>: <span class="nowrap">32–</span>41. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2.14345">10.1109/2.14345</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15721973">15721973</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKotov1991" class="citation journal cs1">Kotov, V.E. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F103701.103707">"Concurrency + modularity + programmability = MARS"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>34</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">32–</span>45. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F103701.103707">10.1145/103701.103707</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10320717">10320717</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Kronos-Excelsior-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kronos-Excelsior_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKuznetsovNedoryaTarasovFilippov" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kuznetsov, D.N.; Nedorya, A.E.; Tarasov, E.V.; Filippov, V.E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kronos.ru/literature/processors">"Kronos: a family of processors for high-level languages"</a>. <i>Kronos: History of a Project</i> (in Russian). xTech<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<cite id="CITEREFKnudsen1983" class="citation thesis cs1">Knudsen, Svend Erik (1983). <i>Medos-2: A Modula-2 Oriented Operating System for the Personal Computer Lilith</i> (PhD). <a href="ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3929%2Fethz-a-000300091">10.3929/ethz-a-000300091</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<cite id="CITEREFKnudsen2000" class="citation book cs1">Knudsen, Svend Erik (25 October 2000). "Medos in Retrospect". In Böszörményi, László; <a href="J%C3%BCrg_Gutknecht" title="Jürg Gutknecht">Gutknecht, Jürg</a>; Pomberger, Gustav (eds.). <i>The School of Niklaus Wirth: The Art of Simplicity</i>. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. <span class="nowrap">69–</span>86. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1558607231</bdi>.</cite> <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-55860-723-4</bdi> & dpunkt, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-932588-85-1</bdi>.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><span class="official-website"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kronos.ru">Official website</a></span></span>, history in Russian</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180108143100/https://www.excelsior-usa.com/krg/krg.html">The Kronos Research Group</a> recovered from <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.modulaware.com/mdlt52.htm">A Brief History of Modula and Lilith</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inc.com/magazine/19960615/1967.html">Acquisition of a Kronos workstation and more by the National Museum of Science and Industry in London</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://code.google.com/p/kronos/">Historical source code from Kronos 198x USSR 32-bit workstation</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160408011809/http://www.excelsior-usa.com/krg/full-kronos.zip">Emulator for the Kronos workstation</a> (via Internet Archive) runs on Windows-NT; tested thereon successfully. Two logins are possible: <code>sys</code> or <code>guest</code>, both password free. See also: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kronos.ru/documentation">More Documentation of Kronos in Russian</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Modula,_Oberon365" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Modula" title="Modula">Modula</a>, <a href="Oberon_(programming_language)" title="Oberon (programming language)">Oberon</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modula</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">By Wirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Modula" title="Modula">Modula</a> (1975) → <a href="Modula-2" title="Modula-2">Modula-2</a> (1978)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">By others</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Modula-2%2B" title="Modula-2+">Modula-2+</a> (1984)</li>

<li><a href="Modula-3" title="Modula-3">Modula-3</a> (1988)</li>

<li><a href="Baby_Modula-3" title="Baby Modula-3">Baby Modula-3</a> (1993)</li>

<li><a href="Obliq" title="Obliq">Obliq</a> (1993)</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Modula-2#Operating_systems" title="Modula-2">Operating systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lilith_(computer)#Operating_system" title="Lilith (computer)">Medos-2</a> (1983, Knudsen)</li>

<li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Operating_system">Excelsior</a> (1988, Soviet)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Workstation" title="Workstation">Workstations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lilith_(computer)" title="Lilith (computer)">Lilith</a> (1980, Wirth)</li>

<li> (1988, Soviet)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Developers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a></li>

<li><a href="Lilith_(computer)" title="Lilith (computer)">Modula Computer Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Centrum_Wiskunde_%26_Informatica" title="Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica">Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a> (DEC) <a href="DEC_Systems_Research_Center" title="DEC Systems Research Center">Systems Research Center</a> (SRC)</li>

<li><a href="Acorn_Computers" title="Acorn Computers">Acorn</a> Research Center</li>

<li><a href="Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a> Research Center (ORC)</li>

<li>elego Software Solutions GmbH</li>

<li><a href="Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union">Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="Novosibirsk" title="Novosibirsk">Novosibirsk</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Niklaus Wirth</a></li>

<li><a href="Mart%C3%ADn_Abadi" title="Martín Abadi">Martín Abadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Luca_Cardelli" title="Luca Cardelli">Luca Cardelli</a></li>

<li><a href="Greg_Nelson_(computer_scientist)" title="Greg Nelson (computer scientist)">Greg Nelson</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oberon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Wirth65" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">By Wirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Oberon_(programming_language)" title="Oberon (programming language)">Oberon</a> (1987) → <a href="Oberon-2" title="Oberon-2">Oberon-2</a> (1991) → <a href="Lola_(computing)" title="Lola (computing)">Lola</a> (1995) → <a href="Active_Oberon" title="Active Oberon">Active Oberon</a> (1998) → <a href="Oberon_(programming_language)#Oberon-07" title="Oberon (programming language)">Oberon-07</a> (2007)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Oberon_(operating_system)" title="Oberon (operating system)">Oberon System</a> (1987)</li>

<li><a href="A2_(operating_system)" title="A2 (operating system)">Active Object System (AOS, 2002), Bluebottle (2005), A2</a> (2008)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Workstation" title="Workstation">Workstation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Ceres_(workstation)" title="Ceres (workstation)">Ceres</a> (1985)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">By others</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Object_Oberon" title="Object Oberon">Object Oberon</a> (1989)</li>

<li>Oberon/F, <a href="BlackBox_Component_Builder" title="BlackBox Component Builder">BlackBox Component Builder</a> (1993)</li>

<li><a href="Component_Pascal" title="Component Pascal">Component Pascal</a> (1997)</li>

<li><a href="Zonnon" title="Zonnon">Zonnon</a> (2013)</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a></li>

<li><a href="Johannes_Kepler_University_Linz" title="Johannes Kepler University Linz">Johannes Kepler University Linz</a></li>

<li><a href="BlackBox_Component_Builder" title="BlackBox Component Builder">Oberon microsystems AG</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Niklaus Wirth</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%BCrg_Gutknecht" title="Jürg Gutknecht">Jürg Gutknecht</a></li>

<li><a href="Tony_Hoare" title="Tony Hoare">Tony Hoare</a></li>

<li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanspeter_M%C3%B6ssenb%C3%B6ck" class="extiw external" title="de:Hanspeter Mössenböck">de:Hanspeter Mössenböck</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category: Modula</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category: Oberon</b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="List_of_Soviet_computer_systems93" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_Soviet_computer_systems93" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_Soviet_computer_systems" title="List of Soviet computer systems">List of Soviet computer systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Aragats_(computer)" title="Aragats (computer)">Aragats</a></li>

<li>Argon</li>

<li><a href="ATM_(computer)" title="ATM (computer)">ATM Turbo</a></li>

<li><a href="Besta_(computer)" title="Besta (computer)">Besta</a></li>

<li>Dnepr</li>

<li><a href="Dubna_48K" title="Dubna 48K">Dubna 48K</a></li>

<li><a href="Elbrus_(computer)" title="Elbrus (computer)">Elbrus</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronika_BK" title="Electronika BK">Electronika BK</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronika_60" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronika 60">Electronika 60</a></li>

<li>Electronika 85</li>

<li>Electronika SS BIS</li>

<li>Electronika MS 1502</li>

<li><a href="Electronika_MS_1504" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronika MS 1504">Electronika MS 1504</a></li>

<li><a href="Hobbit_(computer)" title="Hobbit (computer)">Hobbit</a></li>

<li>Hrazdan</li>

<li><a href="Iskra-1030" title="Iskra-1030">Iskra</a></li>

<li>Irisha</li>

<li>Korvet</li>

<li><a href="Micro-80" title="Micro-80">Micro-80</a></li>

<li>Microsha</li>

<li><a href="Minsk_family_of_computers" title="Minsk family of computers">Minsk</a></li>

<li><a href="Nairi_(computer)" title="Nairi (computer)">Nairi</a></li>

<li><a href="Orion-128" title="Orion-128">Orion-128</a></li>

<li><a href="Pentagon_(computer)" title="Pentagon (computer)">Pentagon</a></li>

<li><a href="Poisk_(computer)" title="Poisk (computer)">Poisk</a></li>

<li><a href="Pravetz_(computer)" title="Pravetz (computer)">Pravetz</a></li>

<li>Promina</li>

<li>Radon</li>

<li><a href="Radio-86RK" title="Radio-86RK">Radio-86RK</a></li>

<li><a href="Scorpion_ZS-256" title="Scorpion ZS-256">Scorpion ZS-256</a></li>

<li><a href="Setun" title="Setun">Setun</a></li>

<li><a href="Specialist_(computer)" title="Specialist (computer)">Specialist</a></li>

<li><a href="Strela_computer" title="Strela computer">Strela</a></li>

<li><a href="Vector-06C" title="Vector-06C">Vector-06C</a></li>

<li>Vesna</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>See also: <a href="History_of_computing_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of computing in the Soviet Union">History of computing in the Soviet Union</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russian_operating_systems190" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Russian_operating_systems190" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Russian <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>,<br><a href="Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="DEMOS" title="DEMOS">DEMOS</a></i></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Linux_distribution" title="Linux distribution">Linux distributions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ALT_Linux" title="ALT Linux">ALT Linux</a>°</li>

<li><a href="Astra_Linux" title="Astra Linux">Astra Linux</a>°</li>

<li><a href="Calculate_Linux" title="Calculate Linux">Calculate Linux</a>°</li>

<li><i><a href="Linux_XP" title="Linux XP">Linux XP</a></i></li>

<li><a href="ROSA_Linux" title="ROSA Linux">ROSA Linux</a>°</li>

<li><i><a href="Russian_Fedora_Remix" title="Russian Fedora Remix">Russian Fedora Remix</a></i>°</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="DOS" title="DOS">DOS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="ANDOS" title="ANDOS">ANDOS</a></i></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Operating_system">Excelsior</a></i> (<a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">modular</a>)</li>

<li><a href="OS2000" title="OS2000">OS2000</a> Baget^</li>

<li><a href="Phantom_OS" title="Phantom OS">Phantom OS</a>° (<a href="Persistent_memory" title="Persistent memory">persistent</a>)</li>

<li><a href="ReactOS" title="ReactOS">ReactOS</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><i>Italics</i> <b>= discontinued</b></li>

<li><b>° = <a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2024-03-17" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Kronos_(computer)&oldid=1214215308">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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